Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4

SMAD 4, also called SMAD family member n°4 or Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4, is a protein involved in is_associated_with::cell signaling in is_associated_with::mammals. It belongs to the proteins of the is_associated_with::SMAD family.

SMAD 4 participates in chain reactions inside cells where it interacts with other members of the SMAD family such as is_associated_with::SMAD2 or is_associated_with::SMAD3. SMAD 4 forms with SMAD 3 a complex which can bind to is_associated_with::DNA and modify the expression of several genes related to cellular activities such as proliferation or differentiation. The complex SMAD 3-SMAD 4 is therefore a is_associated_with::transcription factor. Intracellular reactions involving SMAD 4 are triggered by the binding, on the surface of the cells, of growth factors from the is_associated_with::TGFβ family. The sequence of intracellular reactions involving SMADS is called the SMAD pathway or the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) pathway since the sequence starts with the recognition of TGF-β by cells. SMAD 4 belongs to the is_associated_with::co-SMAD group, the second class of the SMAD family. SMAD 4 is the only known co-SMAD in mammals. It also belongs to the is_associated_with::Darwin family of proteins that modulate members of the TGFβ protein superfamily, a family of proteins that all play a role in the regulation of cellular responses. Mammalian SMAD 4 is a homolog of the is_associated_with::Drosophila protein "is_associated_with::Mothers against decapentaplegic" or MAD.

Structure
SMAD family member 4 is a 552 amino-acid is_associated_with::polypeptide with a molecular weight of 60 439 daltons. This protein is composed of only one chain of amino acids.

SMAD 4 is always coded in mammals by a gene located on chromosome 18. In humans, the protein is coded by the SMAD 4 gene, which is located in the region 21.1 of is_associated_with::chromosome 18. The human gene contains 54 829 base pairs and is located from pair n° 51,030,212 to pair 51,085,041.



SMAD 4 has a tri-dimensional structure and two functional domains known as MH1 and MH2. The letters M and H stand for MAD Homology and refer to the similarity between mammals SMAD 4 and the Drosophilia protein Mothers against decapentaplegic (MAD).



The MH1 domain, corresponding to the is_associated_with::N-terminus, contains amino-acids with physical and chemical properties that give SMAD 4 specific DNA-binding properties. This region recognizes a specific DNA sequence composed of eight nucleotides: G-T-C-T-A-G-A-C.

The sequence is also recognized by SMAD 3, which forms a protein complex with SMAD 4 in the is_associated_with::cytoplasm of mammalian cells. It is therefore sometimes called the "consensus sequence" but is mostly known as Smad-binding DNA element (SBE). The MH1 domain facilitates the binding of SMAD 4 to receptors such as SMAD 2 and SMAD 3 which belong to the is_associated_with::R-SMAD group (first class of the SMAD family) by interacting with their phosphorylated MH2 domain.

The MH2 domain, corresponding to the is_associated_with::C-terminus, is responsible for receptor recognition, DNA binding and association with other SMADs. Just as the MH1 domain interacts with the R-SMADS MH2 domain, the SMAD 4 MH2 domain directly interacts with their MH1 domain. SMAD 4 can therefore form with other SMADS is_associated_with::heterodimers and is_associated_with::heterotrimers.

Nomenclature and origin of name
SMADs are highly conserved across species, especially in the N terminal is_associated_with::MH1 domain and the C terminal is_associated_with::MH2 domain. The SMAD proteins are homologs of both the Drosophila protein MAD and the C. elegans protein SMA. The name is a combination of the two. During Drosophila research, it was found that a mutation in the gene MAD in the mother repressed the gene is_associated_with::decapentaplegic in the embryo. The phrase "Mothers against" was added, since mothers often form organizations opposing various issues, e.g. is_associated_with::Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), reflecting "the maternal-effect enhancement of dpp".

SMAD 4 is also known as DPC4, JIP or MADH4.

Function and action mechanism
SMAD 4 is a protein defined as an essential effector in the SMAD pathway. SMAD 4 serves as a mediator between extracellular growth factors from the TGFβ family and genes inside the cell nucleus. The abbreviation co in co-SMAD stands for common mediator. SMAD 4 is also defined as a signal transducer.

In the TGF-β pathway, TGF-β dimers are recognized by a transmembrane receptor, known as type II receptor. Once the type II receptor is activated by the binding of TGF-β, it phosphorylates a type I receptor. Type I receptor is also a is_associated_with::cell surface receptor. This receptor then phosphorylates intracellular receptor regulated SMADS (R-SMADS) such as SMAD 2 or SMAD 3. The phosphorylated R-SMADS then bind to SMAD 4. The R-SMADs-SMAD 4 association is a is_associated_with::heteromeric complex. This complex is going to move from the cytoplasm to the nucleus: it is the translocation. SMAD4 may form heterotrimeric, heterohexameric or heterodimeric complexes with R-SMADS.

Smad4 is a substrate of the is_associated_with::Erk/is_associated_with::MAPK kinase and is_associated_with::GSK3. The FGF (is_associated_with::Fibroblast Growth Factor) pathway stimulation leads to Smad4 is_associated_with::phosphorylation by is_associated_with::Erk of the canonical is_associated_with::MAPK site located at Threonine 277. This phosphorylation event has a dual effect on Smad4 activity. First, it allows Smad4 to reach its peak of transcriptional activity by activating a is_associated_with::growth factor-regulated transcription activation domain located in the Smad4 linker region, SAD (Smad-Activation Domain). Second, is_associated_with::MAPK primes Smad4 for is_associated_with::GSK3-mediated phosphorylations that cause transcriptional inhibition and also generate a phosphodegron used as a docking site by the ubiquitin is_associated_with::E3 ligase Beta-transducin Repeat Containing (beta-TrCP) that polyubiquitinates Smad4 and targets it for degradation in the is_associated_with::proteasome. Smad4 is_associated_with::GSK3 phosphorylations have been proposed to regulate the protein stability during pancreatic and is_associated_with::colon cancer progression.

In the nucleus the heteromeric complex binds promoters and interact with transcriptional activators. is_associated_with::SMAD3/SMAD4 complexes can directly bind the SBE. These associations are weak and require additional is_associated_with::transcription factors such as members of the AP-1 family, is_associated_with::TFE3 and is_associated_with::FoxG1 to regulate is_associated_with::gene expression.

Many TGFβ ligands use this pathway and subsequently SMAD4 is involved in many cell functions such as differentiation, is_associated_with::apoptosis, is_associated_with::gastrulation, is_associated_with::embryonic development and the is_associated_with::cell cycle.

Clinical significance
Genetic experiments such as is_associated_with::gene knockout (KO), which consist in modifying or inactivating a gene, can be carried out in order to see the effects of a dysfunctional SMAD 4 on the study organism. Experiments are often conducted in the house mouse (is_associated_with::Mus musculus).

It has been shown that, in mouse KO of SMAD4, the is_associated_with::granulosa cells, which secrete hormones and growth factors during the is_associated_with::oocyte development, undergo premature luteinization and express lower levels of follicle-stimulating hormone receptors (FSHR) and higher levels of luteinizing hormone receptors (LHR). This may be due in part to impairment of bone morphogenetic protein-7 effects as BMP-7 uses the SMAD4 signaling pathway.

Deletions in the genes coding for SMAD1 and is_associated_with::SMAD5 have also been linked to metastasic granulosa cell tumors in mice.

SMAD4, is often found mutated in many cancers. The mutation can be inherited or acquired during an individual’s lifetime. If inherited, the mutation affects both is_associated_with::somatic and sexual cells. If the SMAD 4 mutation is acquired, it will only exist in certain somatic cells. Indeed, SMAD 4 is not synthesized by all cells. The protein is present in skin, pancreatic, colon, uterus and epithelial cells. It is also produced by is_associated_with::fibroblasts. The functional SMAD 4 participates in the regulation of the TGF-β signal transduction pathway, which negatively regulates growth of epithelial cells and the is_associated_with::extracellular matrix (ECM). When the structure of SMAD 4 is altered, expression of the genes involved in cell growth is no longer regulated and cell proliferation can go on without any inhibition. The important number of cell divisions leads to the forming of tumors and then to multiploid is_associated_with::colorectal cancer and is_associated_with::pancreatic carcinoma. It is found inactivated in at least 50% of pancreatic cancers.

Somatic mutations found in human cancers of the MH1 domain of SMAD 4 have been shown to inhibit the DNA-binding function of this domain.

SMAD 4 is also found mutated in the is_associated_with::autosomal dominant disease is_associated_with::juvenile polyposis syndrome (JPS). JPS is characterized by hamartomatous polyps in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. These polyps are usually benign, however they are at greater risk of developing is_associated_with::gastrointestinal cancers, in particular is_associated_with::colon cancer. Around 60 mutations causing JPS have been identified. They have been linked to the production of a smaller SMAD 4, with missing domains that prevent the protein from binding to R-SMADS and forming is_associated_with::heteromeric complexes.

Mutations in SMAD4 (mostly substitutions) can cause Myhre syndrome, a rare inherited disorder characterized by mental disabilities, short stature, unusual facial features, and various bone abnormalities.