LDL receptor

The Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor is a mosaic protein of 839 amino acids (after removal of 21-amino acid is_associated_with::signal peptide) that mediates the is_associated_with::endocytosis of cholesterol-rich is_associated_with::LDL. It is a cell-surface receptor that recognizes the apoprotein B100, which is embedded in the outer phospholipid layer of LDL particles. The receptor also recognizes the apoE protein found in chylomicron remnants and VLDL remnants (IDL). In humans, the LDL receptor protein is encoded by the LDLR is_associated_with::gene. It belongs to the is_associated_with::Low density lipoprotein receptor gene family.

is_associated_with::Michael S. Brown and is_associated_with::Joseph L. Goldstein were awarded the 1985 is_associated_with::Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their identification of the Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor and its relation to is_associated_with::cholesterol metabolism and is_associated_with::familial hypercholesterolemia.

Clinical significance
LDL is directly involved in the development of is_associated_with::atherosclerosis, due to accumulation of is_associated_with::LDL-cholesterol in the blood. Atherosclerosis is the process responsible for the majority of is_associated_with::cardiovascular diseases.

Hyperthyroidism may be associated with hypocholesterolaemia via upregulation of the LDL receptor, and hypothyroidism with the converse

Function
LDL receptor complexes are present in is_associated_with::clathrin-coated pits (or buds) on the cell surface, which when bound to LDL-cholesterol via is_associated_with::adaptin, are pinched off to form clathrin-coated vesicles inside the cell. This allows LDL-cholesterol to be bound and internalized in a process known as is_associated_with::endocytosis and prevents the LDL just diffusing around the membrane surface. This occurs in all nucleated cells (not is_associated_with::erythrocytes), but mainly in the liver which removes ~70% of LDL from the circulation.

Once the coated vesicle is internalized it will shed its clathrin coat and will fuse with an acidic late endosome. The change in pH causes a conformational change in the receptor that releases the bound LDL particle. The receptors are then either destroyed or they can be recycled via the is_associated_with::endocytic cycle back to the surface of the cell where the neutral pH will cause the receptor to revert to its native conformation ready to receive another LDL particle.

Synthesis of receptors in the cell is regulated by the level of free intracellular cholesterol; if it is in excess for the needs of the cell then the transcription of the receptor gene will be inhibited. LDL receptors are translated by ribosomes on the is_associated_with::endoplasmic reticulum and are modified by the is_associated_with::Golgi apparatus before travelling in vesicles to the cell surface.

Gene
The is_associated_with::gene coding the LDL receptor is split into 18 is_associated_with::exons. Exon 1 contains a signal sequence that localises the receptor to the is_associated_with::endoplasmic reticulum for transport to the cell surface. Beyond this, exons 2-6 code the ligand binding region; 7-14 code the EGF domain; 15 codes the oligosaccharide rich region; 16 (and some of 17) code the membrane spanning region; and 18 (with the rest of 17) code the cytosolic domain. The LDL receptor can be described as a chimeric is_associated_with::protein. It is made up of a number of functionally distinct domains that can function independently of each other.

Protein
The N-terminal domain of the LDL receptor, which is responsible for ligand binding, is composed of seven sequence repeats (~50% identical). Each repeat, referred to as a class A repeat or LDL-A, contains roughly 40 amino acids, including 6 is_associated_with::cysteine residues that form is_associated_with::disulfide bonds within the repeat. Additionally, each repeat has highly conserved acidic residues which it uses to coordinate a single calcium ion in an octahedral lattice. Both the disulfide bonds and calcium coordination are necessary for the structural integrity of the domain during the receptor's repeated trips to the highly acidic interior of the is_associated_with::endosome. The exact mechanism of interaction between the class A repeats and is_associated_with::ligand (LDL) is unknown, but it is thought that the repeats act as "grabbers" to hold the LDL. Binding of ApoB requires repeats 2-7 while binding ApoE requires only repeat 5 (thought to be the ancestral repeat).

Next to the ligand binding domain is an is_associated_with::epidermal growth factor (EGF) precursor homology domain (EGFP domain). This shows approximately 30% homology with the EGF precursor gene. There are three "growth factor" repeats; A, B and C. A and B are closely linked while C is separated by the YWTD repeat region, which adopts a beta-propeller conformation (LDL-R class B domain). It is thought that this region is responsible for the pH-dependent conformational shift that causes bound LDL to be released in the is_associated_with::endosome.

A third domain of the protein is rich in O-linked is_associated_with::oligosaccharides but appears to show little function. Knockout experiments have confirmed that no significant loss of activity occurs without this domain. It has been speculated that the domain may have ancestrally acted as a spacer to push the receptor beyond the is_associated_with::extracellular matrix.

The single transmembrane domain of 22 (mostly) non-polar residues crosses the is_associated_with::plasma membrane in a single is_associated_with::alpha helix.

The cytosolic C-terminal domain contains ~50 amino acids, including a signal sequence important for localizing the receptors to clathrin-coated pits and for triggering is_associated_with::receptor-mediated endocytosis after binding. Portions of the cytosolic sequence have been found in other is_associated_with::lipoprotein receptors, as well as in more distant receptor relatives.

Mutations
Mutations in the gene encoding the LDL receptor are known to cause familial hypercholesterolaemia.

There are 5 broad classes of is_associated_with::mutation of the LDL receptor.


 * Class 1 mutations affect the synthesis of the receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 * Class 2 mutations prevent proper transport to the is_associated_with::Golgi body needed for modifications to the receptor.
 * e.g. a truncation of the receptor protein at residue number 660 leads to domains 3,4 and 5 of the EGF precursor domain being missing. This precludes the movement of the receptor from the ER to the Golgi, and leads to degradation of the receptor protein.
 * Class 3 mutations stop the binding of LDL to the receptor.
 * e.g. repeat 6 of the ligand binding domain (N-terminal, extracellular fluid) is deleted.
 * Class 4 mutations inhibit the internalisation of the receptor-ligand complex.
 * e.g. "JD" mutant results from a single point mutation in the NPVY domain (C-terminal, cytosolic; Y residue converted to a C, residue number 807). This domain recruits clathrin and other proteins responsible for the endocytosis of LDL, therefore this mutation inhibits LDL internalization.
 * Class 5 mutations give rise to receptors that cannot recycle properly. This leads to a relatively mild is_associated_with::phenotype as receptors are still present on the cell surface (but all must be newly synthesised).