Adiponectin

Adiponectin (also referred to as GBP-28, apM1, AdipoQ and Acrp30) is a is_associated_with::protein which in humans is encoded by the ADIPOQ is_associated_with::gene. It is involved in regulating is_associated_with::glucose levels as well as is_associated_with::fatty acid breakdown.

Structure
Adiponectin is a 244-amino-acid-long polypeptide (protein). There are four distinct regions of adiponectin. The first is a short signal sequence that targets the hormone for secretion outside the cell; next is a short region that varies between species; the third is a 65-amino acid region with similarity to collagenous proteins; the last is a globular domain. Overall this gene shows similarity to the complement 1Q factors (C1Q). However, when the 3-dimensional structure of the globular region was determined, a striking similarity to TNFα was observed, despite unrelated protein sequences.

Function
Adiponectin is a protein is_associated_with::hormone that modulates a number of metabolic processes, including is_associated_with::glucose regulation and is_associated_with::fatty acid is_associated_with::oxidation. Adiponectin is exclusively secreted from is_associated_with::adipose tissue (and also from the is_associated_with::placenta in pregnancy ) into the is_associated_with::bloodstream and is very abundant in plasma relative to many hormones. Levels of the hormone are inversely correlated with body fat percentage in adults, while the association in infants and young children is less clear. Similarly, circulating adiponectin concentrations increase during caloric restriction in animals and humans, such as in patients with is_associated_with::anorexia nervosa. This observation is surprising, given that adiponectin is produced by adipose tissue; however, a recent study suggests that adipose tissue within bone marrow, which increases during caloric restriction, contributes to elevated circulating adiponectin in this context.

Transgenic mice with increased adiponectin show impaired adipocyte differentiation and increased energy expenditure associated with protein uncoupling. The hormone plays a role in the suppression of the metabolic derangements that may result in type 2 diabetes, is_associated_with::obesity, is_associated_with::atherosclerosis, is_associated_with::non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and an independent is_associated_with::risk factor for is_associated_with::metabolic syndrome. Adiponectin in combination with is_associated_with::leptin has been shown to completely reverse is_associated_with::insulin resistance in mice.

Adiponectin is secreted into the bloodstream where it accounts for approximately 0.01% of all plasma protein at around 5-10 μg/mL. Plasma concentrations reveal a is_associated_with::sexual dimorphism, with females having higher levels than males. Levels of adiponectin are reduced in diabetics compared to non-diabetics. Weight reduction significantly increases circulating levels.

Adiponectin automatically self-associates into larger structures. Initially, three adiponectin molecules bind together to form a homotrimer. The trimers continue to self-associate and form hexamers or dodecamers. Like the plasma concentration, the relative levels of the higher-order structures are sexually dimorphic, where females have increased proportions of the high-molecular weight forms. Recent studies showed that the high-molecular weight form may be the most biologically active form regarding glucose homeostasis. High-molecular-weight adiponectin was further found to be associated with a lower risk of diabetes with similar magnitude of association as total adiponectin. However, is_associated_with::coronary artery disease has been found to be positively associated with high molecular weight adiponectin, but not with low molecular weight adiponectin.

Adiponectin exerts some of its weight reduction effects via the is_associated_with::brain. This is similar to the action of is_associated_with::leptin, but the two hormones perform complementary actions, and can have synergistic effects.

Receptors
Adiponectin binds to a number of receptors. So far, two receptors have been identified with homology to is_associated_with::G protein-coupled receptors, and one receptor similar to the cadherin family:
 * adiponectin receptor 1 – is_associated_with::ADIPOR1
 * adiponectin receptor 2 – is_associated_with::ADIPOR2
 * T-cadherin - CDH13

These have distinct tissue specificities within the body and have different affinities to the various forms of adiponectin. The receptors affect the downstream target AMP kinase, an important cellular metabolic rate control point. Expression of the receptors is correlated with insulin levels, as well as reduced in mouse models of diabetes, particularly in is_associated_with::skeletal muscle and adipose tissue.

Discovery
Adiponectin was first characterised in 1995 in differentiating 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Scherer PE et al). In 1996 it was characterised in mice as the mRNA transcript most highly expressed in adipocytes (Maeda, 1996 (citation #1, below)). In 2007, adiponectin was identified as a transcript highly expressed in preadipocytes (precursors of fat cells) differentiating into is_associated_with::adipocytes.

The human homologue was identified as the most abundant transcript in adipose tissue. Contrary to expectations, despite being produced in is_associated_with::adipose tissue, adiponectin was found to be decreased in is_associated_with::obesity. This downregulation has not been fully explained. The gene was localised to chromosome 3q27, a region highlighted as affecting genetic susceptibility to type 2 diabetes and obesity. Supplementation by differing forms of adiponectin was able to improve is_associated_with::insulin control, blood glucose and triglyceride levels in mouse models.

The gene was investigated for variants that predispose to type 2 diabetes. Several is_associated_with::single nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding region and surrounding sequence were identified from several different populations, with varying prevalences, degrees of association and strength of effect on type 2 diabetes. is_associated_with::Berberine, an herbal folk medicine, has been shown to increase adiponectin expression which partly explains its beneficial effects on metabolic disturbances. Mice fed the is_associated_with::omega-3 fatty acids is_associated_with::eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and is_associated_with::docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have shown increased plasma adiponectin.

Phylogenetic distribution includes expression in birds and fish.

Metabolic
Adiponectin effects:


 * glucose flux
 * decreased is_associated_with::gluconeogenesis
 * increased is_associated_with::glucose uptake
 * lipid catabolism
 * is_associated_with::β-oxidation
 * is_associated_with::triglyceride clearance
 * protection from endothelial dysfunction (important facet of atherosclerotic formation)
 * is_associated_with::insulin sensitivity
 * weight loss
 * control of energy metabolism.
 * upregulation of is_associated_with::uncoupling proteins
 * reduction of TNF-alpha

Regulation of adiponectin
 * Obesity is associated with decreased adiponectin.
 * The exact mechanism of regulation is unknown, but adiponectin could be regulated by post-translational mechanisms in cells.

Hypoadiponectinemia
A low level of adiponectin is an independent is_associated_with::risk factor for developing:


 * is_associated_with::Metabolic syndrome
 * is_associated_with::Diabetes mellitus

Other
Lower levels of adiponectin are associated with is_associated_with::ADHD in adults.

Adiponectin levels were found to be increased in is_associated_with::rheumatoid arthritis patients responding to is_associated_with::DMARDs or is_associated_with::TNF inhibitor therapy.

Exercise induced release of adiponectin increased hippocampal growth and led to antidepressive symptoms in mice.

As a drug target
Circulating levels of adiponectin can indirectly be increased through is_associated_with::lifestyle modifications and certain drugs such as is_associated_with::statins.

A is_associated_with::small molecule adiponectin receptor (is_associated_with::ADIPOR1 and is_associated_with::ADIPOR2) is_associated_with::agonist (AdipoRon) has been reported.

Extracts of sweet potatoes have been reported to increase levels of adiponectin and thereby improve glycemic control in humans. However, a systematic review concluded there is insufficient evidence to support the consumption of sweet potatoes to treat is_associated_with::type 2 diabetes mellitus.