Alpha-synuclein

Alpha-synuclein is a is_associated_with::protein that is abundant in the human brain. Smaller amounts are found in the heart, muscles, and other tissues. In the brain, alpha-synuclein is found mainly at the tips of nerve cells (neurons) in specialized structures called presynaptic terminals. Within these structures, alpha-synuclein interacts with phospholipids and proteins. Presynaptic terminals release chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, from compartments known as synaptic vesicles. The release of neurotransmitters relays signals between neurons and is critical for normal brain function.

Although the function of alpha-synuclein is not well understood, studies suggest that it plays an important role in maintaining a supply of synaptic vesicles in presynaptic terminals. It may also help regulate the release of dopamine, a type of neurotransmitter that is critical for controlling the start and stop of voluntary and involuntary movements.

The human Alpha-synuclein protein is made of 140 amino acids, and is encoded by the SNCA is_associated_with::gene. An alpha-synuclein fragment, known as the non-is_associated_with::Abeta component (NAC) of is_associated_with::Alzheimer's disease is_associated_with::amyloid, originally found in an amyloid-enriched fraction, was shown to be a fragment of its precursor protein, NACP. It was later determined that NACP was the human homologue of Torpedo synuclein. Therefore, NACP is now referred to as human alpha-synuclein.

Tissue expression
Alpha-synuclein is a is_associated_with::synuclein is_associated_with::protein of unknown function primarily found in is_associated_with::neural tissue, making up as much as 1% of all proteins in the is_associated_with::cytosol of brain cells. It is predominantly expressed in the is_associated_with::neocortex, is_associated_with::hippocampus, is_associated_with::substantia nigra, is_associated_with::thalamus, and is_associated_with::cerebellum. It is predominantly a neuronal protein, but can also be found in the neuroglial cells. In melanocytic cells, SNCA protein expression may be regulated by MITF.

It has been established that alpha-synuclein is extensively localized in the nucleus of mammalian brain neurons, suggesting a role of alpha-synuclein in the nucleus. Synuclein is however found predominantly in the is_associated_with::presynaptic termini, in both free or membrane-bound forms, with roughly 15% of synuclein being membrane-bound in any moment in neurons.

Recently, it has been shown that alpha-synuclein is localized in neuronal mitochondria. Alpha-synuclein is highly expressed in the mitochondria in olfactory bulb, hippocampus, striatum and thalamus, where the cytosolic alpha-synuclein is also rich. However, the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are two exceptions, which contain rich cytosolic alpha-synuclein but very low levels of mitochondrial alpha-synuclein. It has been shown that alpha-synuclein is localized in the inner membrane of mitochondria, and that the inhibitory effect of alpha-synuclein on complex I activity of mitochondrial respiratory chain is dose-dependent. Thus, it is suggested that alpha-synuclein in mitochondria is differentially expressed in different brain regions and the background levels of mitochondrial alpha-synuclein may be a potential factor affecting mitochondrial function and predisposing some neurons to degeneration.

At least three isoforms of synuclein are produced through is_associated_with::alternative splicing. The majority form of the protein, and the one most investigated, is the full 140 aminoacids-long transcript. Other isoforms are alpha-synuclein-126, where exon 3 is lost and lacks residues 41-54; and alpha-synuclein-112, which lacks residue 103-130 due to loss of exon 5.

Structure
Alpha-synuclein in solution is considered to be an is_associated_with::intrinsically disordered protein, i.e. it lacks a single stable 3D structure. As of 2014, an increasing number of reports suggest, however, the presence of partial structures or mostly structured oligomeric states in the solution structure of alpha-synuclein even in the absence of lipids. This trend is also supported by a large number of single molecule (is_associated_with::optical tweezers) measurements on single copies of monomeric alpha-synuclein as well as covalently enforced dimers or tetramers of alpha-synuclein.

Functions
Alpha-synuclein is specifically upregulated in a discrete population of presynaptic terminals of the brain during a period of acquisition-related synaptic rearrangement. It has been shown that alpha-synuclein significantly interacts with is_associated_with::tubulin, and that alpha-synuclein may have activity as a potential microtubule-associated protein, like tau.

Recent evidence suggests that alpha-synuclein functions as a molecular chaperone in the formation of SNARE complexes. In particular, it simultaneously binds to phospholipids of the is_associated_with::plasma membrane via its N-terminus domain and to is_associated_with::synaptobrevin-2 via its C-terminus domain, with increased importance during synaptic activity. Indeed, there is growing evidence that alpha-synuclein is involved in the functioning of the neuronal is_associated_with::Golgi apparatus and vesicle trafficking.

Apparently, alpha-synuclein is essential for normal development of the cognitive functions. Knock-out mice with the targeted inactivation of the expression of alpha-synuclein show impaired spatial learning and working memory.

Interaction with lipid membranes
Experimental evidence has been collected on the interaction of alpha-synuclein with membrane and its involvement with membrane composition and turnover. Yeast genome screening has found that several genes that deal with lipid metabolism play a role in alpha-synuclein toxicity. Conversely, alpha-synuclein expression levels can affect the viscosity and the relative amount of fatty acids in the lipid bilayer.

Alpha-synuclein is known to directly bind to lipid membranes, associating with the negatively charged surfaces of is_associated_with::phospholipids. Alpha-synuclein forms an extended helical structure on small unilamellar vesicles. A preferential binding to small vesicles has been found. The binding of alpha-synuclein to lipid membranes has complex effects on the latter, altering the bilayer structure and leading to the formation of small vesicles. Alpha-synuclein has been shown to bend membranes of negatively charged phospholipid vesicles and form tubules from large lipid vesicles. Using is_associated_with::cryo-EM it was shown that these are micellar tubes of ~5-6 nm diameter. Alpha-synuclein has also been shown to form lipid disc-like particles similar to is_associated_with::apolipoproteins. Studies have also suggested a possible is_associated_with::antioxidant activity of alpha-synuclein in the membrane.

Sequence
Alpha-synuclein is_associated_with::primary structure is usually divided in three distinct domains:
 * Residues 1-60: An amphipathic N-terminal region dominated by four 11-residue repeats including the is_associated_with::consensus sequence KTKEGV. This sequence has a structural is_associated_with::alpha helix propensity similar to apolipoproteins-binding domains
 * Residues 61-95: A central hydrophobic region which includes the non-amyloid-β component (NAC) region, involved in protein aggregation
 * Residues 96-140: a highly acidic and is_associated_with::proline-rich region which has no distinct structural propensity

Autoproteolytic Activity
The use of high-resolution ion-mobility mass spectrometry (IMS-MS) on HPLC-purified alpha-synuclein in vitro has shown alpha-synuclein to be autoproteolytic (self-proteolytic), generating a variety of small is_associated_with::molecular weight fragments upon incubation. The 14.46 kDa protein was found to generate numerous smaller fragments, including 12.16 kDa (is_associated_with::amino acids 14-133) and 10.44 kDa (40-140) fragments formed through C- and N-terminal truncation and a 7.27 kDa C-terminal fragment (72-140). The 7.27 kDa fragment, which contains the majority of the NAC region, aggregated considerably faster than full-length alpha-synuclein. It is possible that these autoproteolytic products play a role as intermediates or cofactors in the aggregation of alpha-synuclein in vivo.

Clinical significance
Classically considered an unstructured soluble protein, new evidence suggests that unmutated α-synuclein forms a stably folded is_associated_with::tetramer that resists aggregation. Nevertheless, alpha-synuclein aggregates to form insoluble fibrils in pathological conditions characterized by Lewy bodies, such as is_associated_with::Parkinson's disease, is_associated_with::dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy. These disorders are known as is_associated_with::synucleinopathies. Alpha-synuclein is the primary structural component of Lewy body fibrils. Occasionally, Lewy bodies contain tau protein; however, alpha-synuclein and tau constitute two distinctive subsets of filaments in the same inclusion bodies. Alpha-synuclein pathology is also found in both sporadic and familial cases with Alzheimer's disease.

The aggregation mechanism of alpha-synuclein is uncertain. There is evidence of a structured intermediate rich in beta structure that can be the precursor of aggregation and, ultimately, Lewy bodies. A single molecule study in 2008 suggests alpha-synuclein exists as a mix of unstructured, is_associated_with::alpha-helix, and is_associated_with::beta-sheet-rich conformers in equilibrium. Mutations or buffer conditions known to improve aggregation strongly increase the population of the beta conformer, thus suggesting this could be a conformation related to pathogenic aggregation. Among the strategies for treating synucleinopathies are compounds that inhibit aggregation of alpha-synuclein. It has been shown that the small molecule is_associated_with::cuminaldehyde inhibits fibrillation of alpha-synuclein. The is_associated_with::Epstein-Barr virus has been implicated in these disorders.

In rare cases of familial forms of is_associated_with::Parkinson's disease, there is a mutation in the is_associated_with::gene coding for alpha-synuclein. Three is_associated_with::point mutations have been identified thus far: A53T, A30P, and E46K. Genomic duplication and triplication of the gene appear to be a rare cause of Parkinson's disease in other lineages, although more common than point mutations. Hence certain mutations of alpha-synuclein may cause it to form amyloid-like fibrils that contribute to Parkinson's disease.

is_associated_with::Antibodies against alpha-synuclein have replaced antibodies against is_associated_with::ubiquitin as the gold standard for is_associated_with::immunostaining of Lewy bodies.



Certain sections of the alpha-synuclein protein may play a role in the is_associated_with::tauopathies.

Protein-protein interactions
Alpha-synuclein has been shown to interact with
 * is_associated_with::Dopamine transporter,
 * is_associated_with::Parkin (ligase),
 * is_associated_with::Phospholipase D1,
 * is_associated_with::SNCAIP,
 * is_associated_with::Tau protein.
 * is_associated_with::Beta amyloid