Fugu

Fugu (河豚 or 鰒; フグ) is the Japanese word for pufferfish and the dish prepared from it, normally species of genus Takifugu, Lagocephalus, or Sphoeroides, or porcupinefish of the genus Diodon. Fugu can be lethally poisonous due to its tetrodotoxin; therefore, it must be carefully prepared to remove toxic parts and to avoid contaminating the meat. The restaurant preparation of fugu is strictly controlled by the law in Japan and several other countries, and only chefs who have qualified through rigorous training are allowed to deal with the fish. However, the domestic preparation occasionally leads to accidental death. Fugu is served as sashimi and chirinabe. Some consider the liver the tastiest part but it is also the most poisonous, and serving the fugu liver in restaurants was banned in Japan in 1984. Fugu has become one of the most celebrated and notorious dishes in Japanese cuisine.

Toxicity
Fugu contains lethal amounts of the poison tetrodotoxin in the organs, especially the liver, the ovaries, and the skin. The poison, a sodium channel blocker, paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious along with causing paralysis. The victim is unable to breathe, and eventually dies from asphyxiation. There is no known antidote. The standard treatment is to support the respiratory and circulatory systems until the poison dissipates.

Advances in research and aquaculture have allowed some farmers to mass-produce safe fugu. Researchers surmised that fugu's tetrodotoxin came from eating other animals that held tetrodotoxin-laden bacteria and developed immunity over time. Many farmers now produce 'poison-free' fugu by keeping the fugu away from the bacteria. Usuki, a town in Ōita Prefecture, has become known for selling non-poisonous fugu.

History
The inhabitants of Japan have eaten fugu for centuries. Fugu bones have been found in several shell mounds, called kaizuka, from the Jōmon period that date back more than 2,300 years. The Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) prohibited the consumption of fugu in Edo and its area of influence. It became common again as the power of the shogunate weakened. In western regions of Japan, where the government's influence was weaker and fugu was easier to get, various cooking methods were developed to safely eat them. During the Meiji Era (1867–1912), fugu was again banned in many areas. Fugu is also the only food officially forbidden to the Emperor of Japan, for his safety.

Species
The torafugu, or tiger blowfish (Takifugu rubripes), is the most prestigious edible species and the most poisonous. Other species are also eaten; for example, Higanfugu (T. pardalis), Shosaifugu (T. vermicularis), and Namera-fugu (T. porphyreus). The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan provides a list that shows which species' body parts can be consumed. The list names safe genera including pufferfish of the Lagocephalus and Sphoeroides genera and the related porcupinefish (Harisenbon) of the genus Diodon.

Regulations
Strict fishing regulations are now in place to protect fugu populations from depletion. Most fugu are now harvested in the spring during the spawning season and then farmed in floating cages in the Pacific Ocean. The largest wholesale fugu market in Japan is in Shimonoseki.

Fugu prices rise in autumn and peak in winter, the best season, because they fatten to survive the cold. Living fish arrive at a restaurant, surviving in a large tank, usually prominently displayed. Prepared fugu is also often available in grocery stores, which must display official license documents. Whole fish may not be sold to the general public.

Since 1958, fugu chefs must also earn a license to prepare and sell fugu to the public. This involves a two- or three-year apprenticeship. The licensing examination process consists of a written test, a fish-identification test, and a practical test, preparing and eating the fish. Only about 35 percent of the applicants pass. Small miscalculations result in failure or, in rare cases, death. This training process makes it safer to eat fugu in restaurants or markets. Also, commercially available fugu is grown in environments in which it grows to be less toxic.

Offal
Selling or serving the liver (the most toxic part) is illegal in Japan; but this "forbidden fruit" is still sometimes eaten by amateur cooks, often with fatal results.

Cost
A dish of fugu can easily cost ¥5,000 (approx. US$50), but it can be found for as little as ¥2,000 (approx. US$20), and a full-course fugu meal (usually eight servings) can cost ¥10,000-¥20,000 (approx. US$100-$200) or more. The expense encourages chefs to slice the fish very carefully to obtain the largest possible amount of meat. The special knife, called fugu hiki, is usually stored separately from other knives.

Preparations

 * Sashimi—The most popular dish is fugu sashimi, also called Fugu sashi or tessa, sliced so thinly that the pattern of the plate can be seen through the meat. Knives with exceptionally thin blades are used for cutting fugu into translucent slices, a technique known as usuzukuri (薄造, うすづくり). These plates are often decorated in the form of a chrysanthemum flower, which is significant in Japanese culture.


 * Milt—The soft roe (Shirako) of the blowfish is a highly prized food item in Japan. It is often found in department stores; and, along with cod milt, it is one of the most popular kinds of soft roe. It is often grilled and served with salt.


 * Fried—Fugu can be eaten deep fried as Fugu Kara-age.


 * Baked—The fins of the fish are dried out completely, baked, and served in hot sake, a dish called Hire-zake.


 * Stew—Vegetables and fugu can be simmered as Fugu-chiri, also called tetchiri, in which case the fish's very light taste is hard to distinguish from the vegetables and the dip.


 * Salad—If the spikes in the skin are pulled out, the skin can be eaten as part of a salad called yubiki.

Poison
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin that shuts down electrical signaling in nerves by binding to the pores of sodium channel proteins in nerve cell membranes. Tetrodotoxin is not affected by cooking. It does not cross the blood–brain barrier, leaving the victim fully conscious while paralyzing the muscles. In animal studies with mice, 8 μg tetrodotoxin per kg body weight killed 50% of the mice. The pufferfish itself is not susceptible to the poison because of a mutation in the protein sequence of its cells' sodium channel.

As previously mentioned, commercially available fugu in supermarkets or restaurants is very safe; and, while not unheard of, poisoning from these products is very rare. Most deaths from fugu occur when untrained people catch and prepare the fish, accidentally poisoning themselves. In some cases, they even eat the highly poisonous liver as a delicacy. Poison concentrations vary from fish to fish, so poisoning may not always lead to death, instead giving little more than numbness on the lips and tongue while eating and shortly thereafter (part of the appeal). However, numbness of the lips is also the first sign of a lethal dose.

Recent evidence has shown that tetrodotoxin is produced by certain bacteria–such as Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis, certain species of Pseudomonas and Vibrio, as well as others—and that these are the source of the toxin in pufferfish.

Treatment
The symptoms from ingesting a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin may include dizziness, exhaustion, headache, nausea, or difficulty breathing. The victim remains conscious but cannot speak or move. Breathing stops and asphyxiation follows.

There is no known antidote, and treatment consists of emptying the stomach, feeding the victim activated charcoal to bind the toxin, and putting the victim on life support until the poison has worn off. Japanese toxicologists in several medical research centers are now working on developing an antidote for tetrodotoxin.

Incidents
Statistics from the Tokyo Bureau of Social Welfare and Public Health indicate 20 to 44 incidents of fugu poisoning per year between 1996 and 2006 in Japan (a single incident may involve multiple diners). Each year, these incidents led to between 34 and 64 victims being hospitalized and zero to six deaths, an average fatality rate of 6.8%. Of the 23 incidents reported in Tokyo from 1993 through 2006, only one took place in a restaurant. All others involved fishermen eating their catch. Much higher figures have been reported for earlier years; and, for example, in 1958—the first year the preparation of fugu required a special license in Japan—176 people died. According to the Fugu Research Institute 50% of the victims were poisoned by eating the liver, 43% from eating the ovaries, and 7% from eating the skin. One of the most famous victims was the Kabuki actor and "Living National Treasure" Bandō Mitsugorō VIII who in 1975 died after eating an illegally large four servings of liver.

On August 23, 2007, a doctor in Thailand reported that unscrupulous fish sellers sold puffer meat disguised as salmon, which resulted in the deaths of fifteen people over three years. About 115 people were brought to different hospitals. Fugu was banned in Thailand five years prior to the deaths.

In March 2008, a fisherman in the Philippines died and members of his family became ill from pufferfish. The previous year, four people in the same town died and five others fell ill after eating the same variety of pufferfish.

Aquaculture
Scientists at Nagasaki University have reportedly succeeded in creating a non-toxic variety of torafugu by restricting the fish's diet. After raising over 4,800 non-toxic fish, they are fairly certain that the fish's diet and digestive process actually produce the toxins. The non-toxic version is said to taste the same. Some skeptics say that the species being offered as non-toxic may be of a different species and that the toxicity has nothing to do with the diet of the pufferfish.

Availability
Most Japanese cities enjoy one or more fugu restaurants. They may cluster, because of earlier restrictions, as proximity made it easier to ensure freshness. A famous restaurant specializing in fugu is Takefuku, in the Ginza district in Tokyo. Zuboraya is another popular chain in Osaka.

In South Korea, fugu is known as bok-uh (복어). It is very popular in port cities such as Busan and Incheon. It is prepared in a number of dishes such as soups or salads and commands a high price.

As of 2003, only seventeen restaurants in the United States were licensed to serve fugu; twelve are in New York. The fugu is cleaned of the most toxic parts in Japan and freeze-flown to the USA under license in customized, clear, plastic containers. Fugu chefs for U.S. restaurants are trained under the same rigorous specifications as in Japan.

Sale of fish belonging to this genus is forbidden altogether in the European Union.

Social aspects
The Japanese poet Yosa Buson (1716–1783) expressed some of the Japanese attraction to fugu in a famous senryū:


 * I cannot see her tonight.
 * I have to give her up
 * So I will eat fugu.

In the Kansai region, the slang word teppō, (鉄砲) meaning rifle or gun, is used for the fish. This is a play of words on the verb ataru (当たる), which can mean to be poisoned or shot. In Shimonoseki region, the ancient pronunciation fuku is more common instead of the modern fugu. The former is also a homonym good fortune whereas the latter is one for disabled. The Tsukiji fish market fugu association holds a service each year at the height of the fugu season, releasing hundreds of caught fugu into the Sumida River. A similar ceremony is also held at another large market in Shimonoseki.

A rakugo, or humorous short story, tells of three men who prepared a fugu stew but were unsure whether it was safe to eat. To test the stew, they gave some to a beggar. When it did not seem to do him any harm, they ate the stew. Later, they met the beggar again and were delighted to see that he was still in good health. After that encounter, the beggar, who had hidden the stew instead of eating it, knew that it was safe and he could eat it. The three men had been fooled by the wise beggar.

Chairman Kaga, the fictional, eccentric and flamboyant host of the cooking show Iron Chef, is portrayed to have died of fugu poisoning after the series ended (in a reunion episode in 2002).

Lanterns can be made from the bodies of preserved fugu. These are occasionally seen outside of fugu restaurants, as children's toys, as folk art, or as souvenirs. Fugu skin is also made into everyday objects like wallets or waterproof boxes.