Protein kinase R

Protein kinase RNA-activated also known as protein kinase R (PKR), interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase, or eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 2 (EIF2AK2) is an is_associated_with::enzyme that in humans is encoded by the EIF2AK2 is_associated_with::gene.

PKR protects against is_associated_with::viral infections.

Mechanism of action
protein kinase-R is activated by is_associated_with::double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), the synthesis of which is caused virally. PKR can also be activated by the protein PACT or by heparin. PKR contains an is_associated_with::N-terminal dsRNA binding domain (dsRBD) and a is_associated_with::C-terminal is_associated_with::kinase domain, that gives it is_associated_with::pro-apoptotic (cell-killing) functions. The dsRBD consists of two tandem copies of a conserved double stranded RNA binding motif, dsRBM1 and dsRBM2. PKR is induced by is_associated_with::interferon in a latent state. Binding to dsRNA is believed to activate PKR by inducing dimerization and subsequent auto-is_associated_with::phosphorylation reactions. In situations of viral infection, the dsRNA created by viral replication and gene expression binds to the is_associated_with::N-terminal domain, activating the protein. Once active, PKR is able to phosphorylate the eukaryotic translation initiation factor is_associated_with::EIF2A. This inhibits further cellular mRNA translation, thereby preventing viral protein synthesis. Since ElF2A is involved in the commonly initiation translation from an AUG codon, the alternative non-AUG initiation takes place instead. An example of mRNAs using non-AUG initiation are mRNAs for the heat shock proteins. Active PKR is also able to mediate the activation of the transcription factor NFkB, by phosphorylating its inhibitory subunit, IkB. Activated NFkB upregulates the expression of Interferon cytokines, which work to spread the antiviral signal locally. Active PKR is also able to activate tumor suppressor is_associated_with::PP2A which regulates the cell cycle and the metabolism. Through complex mechanisms, active PKR is also able to induce cellular is_associated_with::apoptosis, to prevent further viral spread.

PKR stress pathway
PKR is in the center of cellular response to different stress signals such as pathogens, lack of nutrients, cytokines, irradiation, mechanical stress or stress of endoplasmic reticulum (ER). PKR pathway leads to stress response through activation of other stress pathway such as is_associated_with::JNK, p38, is_associated_with::NFkB, is_associated_with::PP2A and phosphorylation of is_associated_with::EIF2A. ER stress caused by excess of unfolded proteins leads to inflammatory responses. PKR contributes to this response by interacting with several inflammatory kinases such as IKK, JNK, ElF2A, insulin receptor and others. This metabolically activated inflammatory complex is called metabolic inflammasome or metaflammasome.

Viral defense
Viruses have developed many mechanisms to counteract the PKR mechanism. It may be done by is_associated_with::Decoy dsRNA, degradation, hiding of virus is_associated_with::dsRNA, dimerization block, dephosphorylation of substrate or by a is_associated_with::pseudosubstrate.

For instance, is_associated_with::Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) uses the gene is_associated_with::EBER-1 to produce decoy dsRNA. This leads to cancers such as is_associated_with::Burkitt's lymphoma, is_associated_with::Hodgkin's Disease, is_associated_with::nasopharyngeal carcinoma and various is_associated_with::leukemias.

Memory and learning
PKR knockout mice or inhibition of PKR in mice enhances memory and learning.

Fetal alcohol syndrome
PKR also mediates ethanol-induced protein synthesis inhibition and apoptosis which is linked to fetal alcohol syndrome.

Interactions
Protein kinase R has been shown to interact with:
 * is_associated_with::ASK1,
 * is_associated_with::DNAJC3,
 * is_associated_with::ILF3,
 * is_associated_with::METAP2,
 * is_associated_with::P53,
 * is_associated_with::PPP1CA,
 * is_associated_with::PRKRA,
 * is_associated_with::STAT1, and
 * is_associated_with::TARBP2.